Leopard - Panthera pardus

Leopards have elongate, muscular bodies, with broad paws and short ears. Region and habitat have an affect on the appearance of Panthera pardus. Subspecies found in colder climates, such as Panthera pardus orientalis in the Amur region and Panthera pardus saxicolor in the Caucasus mountainous regions, have longer and denser fur compared to subspecies found in tropical regions. Leopards living in hilly areas tend to be larger than those living in lowlands and Iranian leopards are some of the largest to be recorded. The coloration varies from the color of straw to grayish to even chesnutt. There is a tendency to melanism (black coloration) in this species, particularly in densely forested areas where being darker is may be beneficial in remaining unseen as compared to open areas. This coloration is thought to be more prevalent in the forests of Africa than in the more open Eurasian landscape.

Leopards have been recorded as long as 2,92 meters, but sizes of 1,37-1,67 m are more common. However, the Persian leopard (P. pardus saxicolor) is one of the largest subspecies and can stand up to 75 cm tall at the shoulder, and weigh as much as 70 kg. Male Amur leopards (P. pardus orientalis) are also larger than their African counterparts, weighing 32–48 kg, with exceptionally large males up to 60–75 kg. Females are smaller than the males at 25–43 kg.

Leopard

The leopard has the widest habitat tolerance of any Old World felid, ranging from rainforest to desert. In Central Asia, leopards formerly occupied a range of habitats, but now are confined chiefly to the more remote montane and rugged foothill areas.

Leopards prey on a wide variety of species (over 90 in Africa). Leopard densities vary with habitat, prey availability, and degree of threat, from fewer than one per 100 km² to over 30 per 100 km², with densities in the Eurasian region generally significantly lower than in Africa.

The maximum recorded leopard longevity was 27 years in captivity. In the wild, life span is not exactly known but estimates range from 9–15 years.

Depending on the region, leopards may mate all year round (India and Africa) or seasonally during January to February (Manchuria and Siberia). Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2-3, but infant mortality is high and mothers are not commonly seen with more than 1-2 cubs. The pregnant females find a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree, or thicket to give birth and make a den. Around 3 months the infants begin to follow the mother out on hunts. At one year of age leopard young can probably fend for themselves but they remain with the mother for 18-24 months.

The leopard is an adaptable, widespread species that nonetheless is in decline globally, and in particular its subpopulations in the Eurasian region and the Middle East are threatened.

Several Asian subspecies are included on the IUCN Red List, with population information as follows:

• Amur leopard (P.p. orientalis)
  The Amur leopard is a very rare subspecies, with a 2007 census counting only 14-20 adults and 5-6 cubs in the southwestern Primorye region of Russia. It faces numerous threats, including human encroaching, new roads, poaching, exploitation of forests and climate change. Numbers have fluctuated over recent years - a 2003 census counted 20-21 adults and 4-5 cubs, and a 2000 census counted 13-16 adults with 1-3 cubs. Prior to this, the population had been declining. Its range is estimated at just 2,500 km². The Amur leopard is extinct in China and the Korean Peninsula.
• Persian leopard (P.p. saxicolor)
  By compiling national estimates (which include adults, sub-adults and cubs), the total number of mature individuals of this subspecies is fewer than 871-1,290.
  The most recent crude national population estimates are:
  
  • 550-850 in Iran;
  • 200-300 (?) in Afghanistan;
  • 78-90 in Turkmenistan;
  • <10-13 in Armenia;
  • <10-13 in Azerbaijan;
  • 3-4 in Nagorno-Karabakh;
  • <5 in Georgia;
  • < 10 in Russian North Caucasus;
  • < 5 in Turkey.
  • Iran is the leopard stronghold in the Middle East (estimated range 885,300 km²), and supports the viability of the small leopard subpopulations in the Caucasus, eastern Turkey and, possibly, in Turkmenistan through transboundary emigrations. However, leopard densities even in Iran are believed to be very low.
  • The status of the leopard in Afghanistan is poorly known. It is only rarely encountered in the more remote parts of its montane range, due to hunting for fur trade and killing in defense of livestock.
  Populations per country:
  • Afghanistan: 200-300
  • Armenia: <10-13
  • Azerbaijan: <10-13
  • Georgia: <5
  • Iran: 550-850
  • Nagorno-Karabakh (territory disputed between Azerbaijan and Armenia): 3-4
  • Russian North Caucasus: < 10
  • Turkey: < 5
  • Turkmenistan: 78-90
  • P.p. orientalis population:
    Russia (Amur region): 14-20 adults
    
    
  • P.p. saxicolor population:
    Total P.p. saxicolor: 871-1,290

• Afghanistan
• Armenia
• Azerbaijan
• Georgia
• Iran
• Kazakhstan
• Turkey
• Turkmenistan

• Caucasus
• Kopetdag-Badhys

Pantera pardus could at one time be found from British Isles to Japan and throughout most of Asia.

Today, in the Eurasian region, the leopard occurs as remnant populations in south-western and eastern Turkey, the Caucasus into the Himalayan foothills, and the Russian Far East.

The endangered Persian leopard (P.p. saxicolor) is believed to have the following distribution:

• Russian North Caucasus:
  mountain ridges in the headwaters of the Avarskoe Koisu and Andiiskoe Koisu rivers (Republic of Dagestan). Possibly exists in the Chegem River canyon (Kabardino-Balkarian Republic); Erzi Reserve, Assa River valley (Republic of Ingushetia); Armkhi River basin (Republic of North Osetia-Alania), headwaters of the Sharoargun and Argun rivers (Chechen Republic).
• Georgia:
  Vashlovani Reserve in the south-east; Arkhoti River canyon in the upper part of the Assa River basin and the headwaters of the Andiiskoe Koisu River in the north-east. Some anecdotal records from south-western Georgia are either unreliable or can be attributed to individuals coming from north-eastern Turkey.
• Armenia:
  south-western and southern parts of the country from Khosrov Reserve to the Armenian-Iranian state border throughout the Geghama, Zangezur, Aiotsdzor, Bargushat and Meghri ridges. The range boundaries are the Azat River in the north-west; Vardenis Ridge in the north; semi-desert of the Ararat Valley in the west; state border with Azerbaijan and the alpine meadow belt transition zone in the south-west and east; Arax River basin along the Armenian-Iranian border in the south. Until the early 1970s it lived also in north-eastern parts of Armenia.
• Azerbaijan:
  Talysh Mts. in the extreme south-east, Akhar-Bakhar Ridge of the Iori-Mingechaur Highland in the north-west and the Zangezur Ridge in the Nakhichevan Republic along the state border with Armenia in the west (Lukarevsky et al., 2007).
• Nagorno-Karabakh Republic:
  distribution in Shushi, Mardakert and Hadrut districts and in the adjoining Kelbajar district was recorded in 1941-1967. Up-to-date information on leopard status is impossible to obtain due to the political tension between Armenia and Azerbaijan over this republic, even though it plays a vital role as a corridor between the southern (Armenia, Azerbaijan's Nakhichevan Republic), central (Iori-Mingechaur Highland in Azerbaijan and Vashlovani Reserve in Georgia) and northern (Russian North Caucasus) parts of the Caucasus.
• Iran:
  virtually all country, except the vast deserts of Desht-e-Kevir and Desht-e-Lut in central and eastern parts. Particularly common in the Alborz Mts. along the southern fringe of the Caspian Sea. Quite common in protected areas (e.g., Tandooreh, Sarigol, Bafgh, Golestan, Kolahghazy, Touran, Kavir, Khojir, Khabr and Bamu national parks; Kiamaki and Naybandan wildlife refuges; Jahan Nama, Central Alborz, Varjin, Arasbaran, Dena and Bahram'gur protected areas) and some unprotected lands (Chapur-Ghoymeh, Safee Abad-Dozain or Minoo Dasht, Ramsar, Khaeez and Darestan-Rudbar).
• Turkey:
  north-east (around the city of Artvin), east (vicinities of Mt. Ararat or Agri) and south-east (Bitlis Ridge). Possibly exists in the mountains of the Black Sea coast and south-westwards to the Taurus Mts. It is unclear whether leopards still survive in western Turkey.
• Turkmenistan:
  western Kopetdag Ridge, central Kopetdag Ridge, eastern Kopetdag Ridge, Badkhyz Reserve and Giaz-Gyadyk Ridge.
• Afghanistan:
  central (Hindu Kush, Kohe Baba, Kohe Paghman and Safed Koh ranges of the central highlands), north-eastern (Wakhan corridor) and northern (Darkad peninsula of Badakshan) parts of the country.
• Central Asian republics:
  here the leopard distribution is poorly known. Historically, leopards had a wider distribution in Turkmenistan, and were found in parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. An old male leopard was killed by a local hunter in January 2000 in Kazakhstan, the first record of the species in this country, in a location over 600 km from possible occurrences in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and over 1,200 km from known occurrences in Turkmenistan. Habitat appears to be suitable, but the existence of any leopard subpopulation in any of these three countries is uncertain.

Persian leopard (P.p. saxicolor)

The most urgent threat is ever-increasing fragmentation into a patchy network of distant and often too small subpopulations. No subpopulation across the entire range is believed to contain more than 100 mature individuals . In the Caucasus, corridors are urgently needed to link fragmented populations.

Prey reduction from poaching, infrastructure development, disturbance and habitat loss (collection of edible plants and mushrooms, mining, road construction, deforestation, wild fire and livestock grazing) are the driving forces of range fragmentation, and leave vast tracts of mountainous habitats unsuitable for resident leopard subpopulations. The inter-patch hostile environments can be crossed by dispersing sub-adult leopards, but such movements are risky and often end up with killings of predators that actually or allegedly kill livestock in order to survive. Only a handful of protected areas (all in Iran) are large enough to maintain viable leopard subpopulations. Mountainous habitats are naturally discontinuous and patchy, which aggravates the impacts of fragmentation.

Direct poaching occurs as trophy hunting for sales in fur markets, shooting to alleviate predation on livestock (Iran, Turkmenistan) and killings upon encounter (Caucasus, eastern Turkey). It is not widespread, but makes a substantial impact on population viability due to small population size. This is especially true in the Caucasus where the population is thinly distributed over the vast areas and removal of just one individual delays replenishment by immigrants and hampers overall demographic stabilization. As a result, even in optimal prey-rich areas (e.g., in southern Armenia) actual leopard density is much lower than predicted from prey abundance. Political conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (warfare ceased in 1995) entails the factors that boost poaching: military training and testing grounds, border posts, intensification of agriculture and mining in safety zones and re-settling of previously abandoned villages. Leopard occurrence is inversely related to human densities.

Leopards come into conflict with people across their range. A rapidly increasing threat to leopards is the poisoning of carcasses targeting carnivores.

Amur leopard (P.p. orientalis)

The Amur leopard is critically endangered due to habitat encroachment, habitat destruction, prey depletion and poaching. The small size of the remaining population is a particular threat to its survival in the wild.

• ALTA Amur Leopard Conservation
  The ALTA Amur Leopard Conservation website provides information about the Amur leopard and about leopard conservation projects implemented by the Amur Leopard and Tiger Alliance (ALTA). ALTA has decided to dedicate this website to the Amur leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) because it receives, in general, much less attention than its famous cousin, the Amur tiger!
• Persian Leopard conservation society
  Persian Leopard conservation society started its very first activities from 1998, Its all started by personal interest of its founder Ali Aghili; IUCN, Cat Specialist Group member, to collect information and reach to a sensible understanding of the status of the Persian leopard and other felids in Iran and then to conduct research and conservation programs for them.
• Panthera
  Panthera's mission is to ensure the future of wild cats through scientific leadership and global conservation action.
• Leopards of Iran – Under threat
  According to Persian calendar, 2010 is Year of Leopard in Iran which undoubtedly is a unique opportunity to establish comprehensive conservation efforts for this vanishing big cat. Social events can normally attract social attention toward conservation from the general population as well as high-ranked decision-makers.
• The Zoological Society of London (ZSL
  Amur leopard conservation in Russia Ten times more endangered than the Amur tiger, these beautiful cats are now found only in the forests of southwest Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East, and it is estimated that only about 30 are left in the wild.
• WWF - Panda
  The long-term goal for leopard conservation is to enlarge and maintain a genetically viable population of at least 50 individuals in south-western Primorsky Province and create new founder populations in other parts of the animal's former range.
• WWF - Panda
  Due to poaching and habitat loss, the Bukhara deer population dropped significantly throughout the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Thanks to a WWF conservation project in the region, the number has increased to about 1,000. The deer’s main predator, the leopard, has also seen its population stabilize. The overall goal of the project is to develop a network of protected areas in Central Asia for the benefit of nature conservation and sustainable socio-economic development.

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