Red Deer - Cervus elaphus

• Cervus elaphus bactrianus (Bukhara Deer)

Until recently biologists considered that Red Deer and Wapiti (or Elk) are the same species forming, a continuous distribution throughout temperate Eurasia and North America. This belief was based largely on the fully fertile hybrids that can be produced under captive conditions.

However, recent DNA studies conducted on hundreds of samples from Red Deer and Elk subspecies concluded that there are no more than 9 distinct subspecies of Red Deer and Wapiti and that they fall into two separate species: the Red Deer from Europe, western Asia and North Africa, and the Wapiti or Elk from Northern and Eastern Asia and North America. Surprisingly, from DNA evidence the Elk appear more closely related to Sika Deer and to Thorold's deer than to Red Deer.

Source: Wikipedia

The Red Deer is one of the largest deer species. It is a ruminant, eating its food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof. European Red Deer tend to be reddish-brown in their summer coats. The males of many subspecies also grow a short neck mane during the autumn. Red Deer hinds (females) do not have neck manes.

Only the stags have antlers which start growing in the spring and are shed each year, usually at the end of winter. Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of 2,5 cm a day. A soft covering known as velvet helps to protect newly forming antlers in the spring. European red deer antlers are distinctive in being rather straight and rugose, with the fourth and fifth tines forming a "crown" or "cup" in larger males. The antlers are testosterone-driven and as the stag's testosterone levels drop in the autumn, the velvet is shed and the antlers stop growing.

Red deer stag, Poland

Habitat and food

It inhabits open deciduous woodland, upland moors and open mountainous areas (sometimes above the treeline), natural grasslands, pastures and meadows. In woodland, its diet consists mainly of shrub and tree shoots, but in other habitats it also consumes grasses, sedges and shrubs.

The Red Deer is generally found in mountainous regions, where it spends summers in alpine meadows and winters in valleys. On more level terrain it seeks wooded hillsides in summer and open grasslands in winter.

Bushes and trees are critical for protection from predators such as Wolves, and as an important source of food during the winter in the form of browse. Red deer are able to shape shrubs and regenerating trees by their intensive browsing into unnatural looking structures. During the September-October rut, Mongolian populations of Red deer congregate in large groups and are more often found in open lowland areas. Red Deer can be found in China up to 5,000 m, animals come lower into valleys in winter.

Behaviour and Reproduction

Red Deer live in small herds of females and young, gathering into larger herds in winter. Stags live singly or form all male herds in summer, but gather harems in rut season in late summer, without obvious territories.

Group of Red deer fouraging behind the bison

Mature Red Deer usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating ritual, called the rut, mature stags compete for the attentions of the hinds and will then try to defend hinds that they attract. Rival stags challenge opponents by belling and walking in parallel. This allows combatants to assess each other's antlers, body size and fighting powers. If neither stag backs down, a clash of antlers can occur, and stags sometimes sustain serious injuries.

Dominant stags follow groups of hinds during the rut, from August into early winter. The stags may have as many as 20 hinds to keep from other less attractive males. Only mature stags hold harems (groups of hinds) and breeding success peaks at about 8 years of age. Stags 2-4 years old rarely hold harems and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems, as do stags over 11 years old. Young and old stags that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than those stags in their prime.
Harem holding stags rarely feed and lose up to 20% of their body weight. Stags that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period.

Male European Red Deer have a distinctive "roar" during the rut, which is an adaptation to forested environments, as opposed to male Wapiti (or American Elk) which "bugle" during the rut in adaptation to open environments. The male deer roars to keep his harem of females together. The females are initially attracted to those males that both roar most often and have the loudest roar call. Males also use the roar call when competing with other males for females during the rut, and along with other forms of posturing and antler fights, is a method used by the males to establish dominance. Roaring is most common during the early dawn and late evening, which is also when the deer are most active in general.

Red Deer mating patterns usually involve a dozen or more mating attempts before the first successful one. There may be several more matings before the stag will seek out another mate in his harem. Females in their second autumn can produce one and very rarely two offspring per year. The gestation period is 240 to 262 days. Calving occurs in June-July and the offspring weigh about 15 kg. Females drop single calves in late spring. Young are mature at 1,5 to 2,5 years. After two weeks, fawns are able to join the herd and are fully weaned after two months. The gestation period is the same for all subspecies.

Female offspring outnumber male offspring more than two to one and all Red Deer fawns are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and lose their spots by the end of summer. However, as in many species of Old World Deer, some adults do retain a few spots on the backs of their summer coats.

A spotted young deer in the primeval forest, Bialowieza

The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost one full year, leaving around the time that the next season offspring are produced.

Natural lifespan is about 15 years, but a captive animal lived up to almost 27 years.

Besides Humans, domestic dogs, Wolves and occasionally Brown bear. Eurasian Lynx and Wild boars sometimes prey on the fauns.

Male Red Deer retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less gregarious and less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. The antlers provide self-defence as does a strong front-leg kicking action which is performed by both sexes when attacked. Once the antlers are shed, stags tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to cooperatively work together. Herds tend to have one or more members watching for potential danger while the remaining members eat and rest.

After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. The newborn fauns are kept close to the hinds by a series of vocalizations between the two, and larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing is used with all but the most determined of predators with great effectiveness. Aside from humans and domestic dogs, the Wolf is probably the most dangerous predator that most European Red Deer encounter. Occasionally, the Brown bear will predate on European Red Deer as well. Eurasian Lynx and Wild boars sometimes prey on the fauns.
The Leopard in Asia Minor (now extinct) probably preyed on East European Red Deer. Both Barbary Lion and Barbary Leopard probably once preyed on Atlas stags in the Atlas Mountains, although Barbary Lion is now extinct in the wild, and Barbary Leopard either very rare or extinct.

Source: Wikipedia

It is a widespread and abundant species across much of its current range, although there is increasing fragmentation of populations in northern Africa, central Europe and in the western USA and Canada, and the species has been lost from some areas.

In portions of North America where predators have been removed the species is common and populations are managed by recreational hunting. Typical population densities range from 2 to 10 individuals per km2 (up to c.25 per km2, higher figures in the literature almost certainly refer to fed populations). It is sufficiently abundant in some areas to be considered a pest in forestry plantations.

In Germany there are reports of 60,000 animals hunted per year. The most recent records indicate a population size of 150,000-180,000 in Germany.

The species has been extirpated in historical times from Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Jordan.

Populations in Northern Africa, however, have been increasingly declining. In Algeria, Cervus elaphus barbarus persists in the Annaba, Bouchegouf, and El-Kala regions, where it is restricted to the Beni-Salah, Ben Abed, and El-Kala forests. The total number of animals in the mid-1970's was reported to be 400-600, and by the late 1980's reached around 2,000 animals. However, the population has been in a sharp decline since.

In Tunisia, the population was reported to have expanded considerably during the 1970's, with populations known in El Feidja, Ain Draham, and Tabarka regions. The total population of ten animals in 1961 had increased to around 2,000 by the late 1980's. Much of this increase is attributed to the success of the 1966 reintroduction protection program at El Feidja, which has resulted in colonization of an approx. 100 km length of coastal Tunisia. A survey in 2006 showed that population levels were significantly lower than estimated before.

In Morocco it went extinct in the early 20th century (by 1932). There have more recently been reintroductions into two enclosures but wild populations have not yet become established.

Spain Cantabrian mountains

Red deer has been reintroduced from southern Spain and its stock has been increasing during recent decades. It is very common today.

Carpathians
There is a discussion about the necessity of reducing Red deer locally in the mountainous area due to apparent heavy browsing pressure on fir.

Caucasus
The population of Red deer in the Kavkazsky Nature Reserve declined to a third. In Georgia, small populations of Red deer survived only in nature reserves.

Populations of Caucasian red deer (Cervus elaphus maral) decreased dramatically, especially in the South Caucasus, caused by the same threats. Isolated populations survived in:

• Borjomi Kharagauli National Park, Georgia (current estimated number – 150 individuals)
• South-East Greater Caucasus:
  • particularly Lagodekhi reserve, Georgia, around 250 individuals, and 
  • Zagatala, Illisu reserves and Shakhdag NP, Azerbaijan with total estimated number – 600-650 individuals.

In Armenia Red deer extinct recently, mostly due to dramatically increased poaching in the first decade after Soviet Union collapsed (90th last century). Dilijan NP is located in northeastern Armenia, within East Lesser Caucasus mountains protecting 33,765 ha of temperate broad-leaf forests and alpine grasslands.

Asssesments:

• Regional assessment has been completed for this species as part of the European Mammal Assessment, which offers more details on European occuances, populations and threats.
• Rapid Feasibility Study on Red Deer Reintroduction in Armenia: Report, Sh. Eriashvili; WWF, 2006.

In China, some eight subspecies of red deer are present in China, of which five have threatened status:

• Cervus elaphus yarkandensis had a declining population of about 4,000-5,000 in 1991, scattered along the Tarim and Karakax rivers, central Xinjiang Province.

• Cervus elaphus wallichi was thought to be present in southeastern Tibet;

• Cervus elaphus macneilli occurs in western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet, where its status is unknown;

• Cervus elaphus alashanicus occurs in the Alashan Mountains of southeastern Inner Mongolia.

• A recent survey suggests that Cervus elaphus affinis is confined to just a few localities in southeastern Tibet along the headwaters of the Subansiri River and Yarlung Tsangpo, which holds the largest known population of at least 110-125 (near Zhengi Village).

• Albania
• Armenia
• Austria
• Azerbaijan
• Belarus
• Belgium
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Bulgaria
• China
• Croatia
• Czech Republic
• Denmark
• Estonia
• France
• Georgia
• Germany
• Greece
• Hungary
• Iran
• Ireland
• Italy
• Kazakhstan
• Kyrgyzstan
• Latvia
• Lithuania
• Macedonia
• Mongolia
• Netherlands
• Norway
• Poland
• Romania
• Russia
• Serbia
• Slovakia
• Slovenia
• Spain
• Sweden
• Switzerland
• Tajikistan
• Turkey
• Turkmenistan
• Ukraine
• United Kingdom
• Uzbekistan

• Altai
• Caucasus
• Carpathians
• Cantabrian mountains
• Central Apennines
• Lena Delta
• Mongolia
• Orel-Bryansk
• Vologda

Albania; Israel; Jordan; Lebanon; Mexico; Nepal; Syrian Arab Republic; Turkmenistan.

The Red Deer has a large global distribution extending from Europe and North Africa through central Asia, Siberia, the Far East and North America.

Formerly widespread in Canada and the United States, it is now mostly restricted to western North America, with small reintroduced populations elsewhere. It is widely but somewhat patchily distributed throughout most of continental Europe, although it is absent from northern Fennoscandia and European Russia. It is present on a number of islands, including the British Isles and Sardinia.

It is extinct in Albania.

There are several small introduced subpopulations in Russia (all introduced into nature reserves for hunting) of unknown origin.

There may be a small natural subpopulation at Kaliningrad in Russia just across the Polish border.

In Greece, the small isolated subpopulations are the result of reintroductions into areas where it previously occurred.

Likewise in Portugal all populations result from reintroduction or natural expansion from transborder Spanish populations which in turn were reintroduced. It occurs from sea level to above the tree line (c.2,500 m) in the Alps. The distribution is much more patchy and fragmented than the apparent continuity suggested by the distribution map.

In Africa it is found in North East Algeria and Tunisia.

It is in the near and Middle East in Turkey, North Iran, and Iraq, but extinct in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.

In central Asia, it is found in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan (extinct), Uzbekistan, North Afghanistan, North India (Kashmir Valley), North Pakistan (vagrant), east to Siberia, Mongolia, and West and North China.

It is found regionally in Mongolia in Hövsgöl, Hangai, Hentii, Ikh Hyangan, Mongol-Altai and Govi Altai mountain ranges; it was reintroduced into open hills in south-eastern parts of its range.

In China, specifically, it is found in Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Liaoning, Manchuria, Ninxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan, and Eastern Tibet including Qinghai.

It also inhabits Korea and the Ussuri region of Russia.

Main threat

The main threat is the intermixing of the various subspecies, including subspecies from North America (wapiti) and Asia to Europe and vice versa, as well as hybridisation with sika deer Cervus nippon. The introduction of animals from North America to Europe has also resulted in the spread of parasites and diseases to previously unaffected subpopulations (e.g. liver worms).
In many areas hunting is strictly regulated on this species and harvests are used to control population growth as large predators have been removed or "controlled" over much of the range.
Overhunting and habitat loss as a result of agricultural intensification and urbanisation are other pressures in some areas and for some subspecies, but they are not thought to pose a major threat to the species at present.

Mongolia

In Mongolia, this species is primarily targeted for its antler velvet, which is highly valued in traditional medicines, with a market value of $60-100 USD per kg of antlers. Other body parts, including male genital organs, foetuses and female tails, are also valued for traditional medicines and have similar market values. The resulting illegal and unsustainable hunting has caused a 92% population decline over the past 18 years. Habitat loss and fragmentation, and human disturbance resulting from mining activities and infrastructure development, also constitute threats to some extent. Trophy hunters can purchase hunting licenses from which $1,170 USD is allocated to the government.

China

In China the species is subject to heavy poaching. Antlers, tendons, unborn fawns, male reproductive organs, and tails from Cervus elaphus yarkandensis fetch a high price on local markets for use in traditional Chinese medicine. Current market prices for these products are increasing rapidly. Young deer are sold as stud for deer farming projects.

India

In India, the species historically declined due to intensive hunting, until implementation of conservation measures in the late 1970s. High densities of domestic stock (primarily sheep) and human disturbance have also been contributing factors.

Afghanistan and former USSR

In Afghanistan and the former USSR, the species is heavily poached for food, and settlement, stock grazing, and reed burning have reduced available habitat. In Russia, it has declined as a result of development of the Amu-Darya river valley.

Northern Africa

In Algeria and Tunisia, the species has declined due to overhunting, particularly during the Algerian War, and habitat degradation destruction and direct mortality from anthropogenic forest fires.

Corsica and Sardinia

In Corsica and Sardinia, Cervus elaphus corsicanus declined as a result of hunting. Cervus elaphus wallichi has declined predominantly as a result of hunting, but also due to pressure from pastoralism.

It is protected under Appendix III of the Bern Covention. Subspecies Cervus elaphus corsicanus is strictly protected under Appendix II of the Bern Convention and Annexes II* and IV of the EU Habitats and Species Directive. It occurs in numerous protected areas across its range and also in protected areas outside its range where it has been introduced. To preserve the genetic integrity of local populations, it is important that the introduction of red deer from other areas is stopped, unless there is evidence that they belong to the same taxon (subspecies).

Red deer in Europe have been affected to a large extend by translocations not only between far distant populations and different subspecies within the continent, but also by imported conspecifics from Central Asia and North America, and introduced Sika deer. As a result, most of the present deer populations of Europe are either known hybrids on a subspecific or even specific level or their breeding background is insufficiently known for excluding such a possibility. Systematic investigation into the history and the genetics of all European red deer populations is therefore needed as a base for establishing a European Red Deer Managment Plan. Part of this plan should be the identification of unpolluted autochthonous populations of this species and protection of their genetic integrity, thus preserving as much as possible of what is left of its natural variation.

Bukhara deer - Cervus elaphus bactrianus

As the only true deer species in the arid zone of Central Asian region, Bukhara deer was always strictly connected with riparian forests of river valleys, which suffer greatly from anthropogenic influence, as the most favorable area for agriculture in desert surrounding. Being originally not very numerous and sedentary, both the number of animals and the area of Bukhara deer had reduced greatly already in between 1970 and 1980.

It arrived to be under a threat of extinction in 1996-1998, as a result of great decrease of some populations and practical elimination of other in 1990-th: only about 350 deer were proved to live in all populations throughout the species’ area with the major populations in Amudaria river valley (so – under common threat of possible disasters). Thanks to WWF project of 2000-2010 (with initial support of LHI/LHF in 1999) the total number of Bukhara deer increased up to 1450 in 2010, reintroduction on-going in three sites – middle reaches of Syrdaria, left banks of Kaptchagai water reserve (Kazakhstan) and Zarafshan (Uzbekistan). Still there are a lot of opportunities for the species restoration in other riparian forests in the limits of the historical area.

Aral sea disaster is a well-known ecological problem of the area, which causes a lot of health problems of local population. Major attention of international community is attracted to the health and freshwater supply problem, while ecology itself is to a great extent missed. Development of real ecosystems with all necessary components could help to replace badlands of the former bottom – sources of dust and salt - by grasslands and forests. The process is already on-going, and sites suitable for Bukhara deer are already rather numerous. Unfortunately they are separated from the of riparian forests, already inhabited by deer, by huge agricultural and rocky territories, so that natural deer migrations are not visible.

Still there are huge wilderness areas in Kazakhstan where all species variety can be restored. Just recently a feasibility study had been completed on the possibility of Turanian tiger reintroduction in Ily-Balhash area. It was proved to be quite realistic, but the long-term process should start with ecosystems and prey base restoration. The area provides an excellent habitat for Wild boar, Bukhara deer and in some parts for Roe deer.

Bukhara deer reintroduction in this area is important both as species restoration – and as an important component for ecosystems’ restoration with a long-term goal of Turanian tiger restoration in the region.

In cooperation of WWF project and Large scale UNDP project (Development of a system of protected areas of Amudaria delta ) the exact sites optimal for reintroduction were identified. Infrastructure for keeping deer during adaptation period built.

• Legal aspects of (Re-)introduction of large herbivores

• Large herbivores on the move
• Large scale nature development- the Oostvaardersplassen
• Status report 2007 of the large herbivores of the palaeartic

• Red deer fights a European bison